Historical Perspectives: Benefits, costs, and impact of free international trade Essay

Our world has become a village and the globalization movement has picked up momentum requiring governments and individuals alike to adapt to these changes in the understanding that their growth or indeed survival depends on it. Globalization has been fuelled by a consistent practice of free trade whose growth necessitates breaking down several legal and fiscal barriers in order to make cooperation easier and flow of capital and investments across the globe more effective. Growth of companies and increased competition requires that companies seek markets in foreign countries and mutual benefit dictates that bilateral efforts between trading partners be equal and for that an abolition of significant reduction of tariffs and licenses becomes mandatory. Free trade therefore has led to the adoption of capitalism across the globe with only a small fraction of countries still clinging to communism as a form of economy (Bhagwati 2002). However, free trade was not always the preferred form of a market system in the early days and the status quo has been brought through the influence of great economists and philosophers alike whose advocacy against traditional economic practices led to the present free international trade. The first prominent form of international trade was mercantilist which tended to favor the accumulation of precious metals. The mercantilist economists favored strong protectionist policies which included high tariffs and restricted movement of labor and resources. The emergence of liberal economists like Richard Cobden and Adam Smith led to a systematic attack against such practices and a sustained effort to replace it with free market. This market will be characterized by reduced government control, abolition of restrictions and relying on the forces of demand and supply to determine prices. However, Karl Marx felt that although free market under capitalism was a brilliant and effective form of market structure, he nevertheless felt that it led to segregation of society and that such a system would collapse and be replaced by a classless society under communism (Marx, 1999).

Language Teaching Essay

Over the past thirty years, technology is playing an important role in various areas of interest such as text, graphics, sound and animation. One of the area in which we are interested, is Language Teaching. Nowadays Computer-assisted Language Learning (CALL) is increasingly becoming popular among all. It has been evolved as a highly successful source of learning in the area of research and practical methodology to enhance the traditional teaching methods. The book Computer-assisted Language Learning (Levy, M. 1997) defines CALL as the series of programs designed specifically to promote language learning. He analyzed the results of a comprehensive CALL Survey, which he carried out among authors of CALL materials in order to determine what kinds of conceptual frameworks lay behind their work. From this, he found that the new approach to Language Learning is Data Driven Learning (DDL). Tim Johns, University of Birmingham, found it. In DDL the learning process is no longer based solely on the teacher’s initiative, his/her choice of topics and materials and the explicit teaching of rules, but on the learner’s own discovery of rules, principles and patterns of usage in the foreign language (Levy 1997:123) The objective of inclusion of Information Technology (IT) in language teaching is to develop an advanced understanding of practical, technical and practical aspects of IT applications in language teaching among students. In addition, students are also exposed to concordancing software, computer-based discussion forums, internet navigation, composition skills and other language learning multimedia activities. IT can be implemented in language teaching by giving the students, online homework, asking them to search the net to have an idea about the topics to be taught in class and by letting them to go for interactive studies via internet rather than spoon- feeding All these methods develop the communication as well as composition skills of the children. Infact, it is the turning point for our education system i. e from subject-oriented to learner-oriented. Proceeding further, we will come to know about potential role of IT in learning and teaching. Also, we will have a detail study of various ITLT program proposed by some key scholars and their research. Our focus will be on the possible ways of using available technology, at the same time we will have a brief overview of future possibilities of ITLT. Role Of Information Technology In Language Teaching and Learning:- Imagine, if you were asked to teach tomorrow’s technology in today’s classroom. How will you manage to give deep knowledge of the concerned topic to the students. This is possible if students are subjected to explore the topic presented from sources spanning the globe which are in the form of text, graphics, audio and video. Students can collect information by directly interacting with experts throughout the world. This is the role played by technology( internet and World Wide Web) in classroom studies. World Wide Web offers real world example of integrated knowledge, possibilities for collaborative working, up-to-date and abundant information. It is a rich source of authentic language and cultural material, appeals to learners with visual or tactile learning styles and builds critical learning skills. It also provides an opportunity for skimming or scanning practice and for online publishing. This type of learning can be achieved by introducing various softwares available in market, having a specific methodology for polishing the communication and other skills of the learners. CALL is a software that includes methodologies like giving multiple choice questions, fill in the blanks and other such types which can be easily corrected by the computer. The performance of student can be judged easily by these kind of worksheets. It plays an important role in developing logical and reasoning skills of the student. However, CALL fails to examine complex exercises i. e it becomes a time consuming task for it. This problem can be solved by Natural Language Processing ( NLP ) tools . It has an additional features such as written texts can be listened with the help of ‘speech synthesizer’, sentences can be analyzed by ‘sentence structure viewer’, verb conjugations can be verified with a ‘conjugation tool’, an error diagnosis system, spell checker, grammar checker etc. Nowadays, ‘language media centers’ have replaced ‘audiotape language labs’. Language media centers are equipped with equipment and computer software audio and video materials printed materials technical support staff and resources assistants training of teaching staff materials development Also, learners can have access to foreign language documents through World Wide Web. They can also contact their teachers, classmates and native speakers via electronic mail (E-mail). Network Based Language Teaching(NBLT) is a kind of CALL in which computers are locally or globally connected. It is widely used in tutorials, drills, simulations, instructional games, tests etc. Through these computer-mediated communication, learners can enhance their communication (hearing, reading, listening ) skills by noticing the language used in messages they compose and read. Hyperproof is a Macintosh software program. It assists in learning the principles of analytical reasoning and proof construction. It combines graphical and sentential information to present a set of logical rules using which student learns to construct proof of problems having consequence or no-cosequence. Hyperproof software checks the validity of each type of proof. CALICO is another software having an application in drill and practice, tutorial, game, simulation, assessment, instructional management etc. It enhances the reasoning and communicating skills of the learner by providing them with the activities like multiple choice questions, fill-in exercises, pronounciation, dialog repetition, listening comprehension, transcription, vocabulary learning, database building etc.

An exploration into the role of nutrition information in influencing Essay

An exploration into the role of nutrition information in influencing consumer choice - Essay Example Since full-time employment requires employees to spend fixed number of hours at the office, more women who are single mothers are becoming attracted to part-time jobs. Aside from the presence of gender wage gap in our society, the high unemployment rate and standard of living are also affecting the widening gap between the available leisure time of women and their income distribution (Terra and y Carmen Estrades 2007). It means that single parents who are maintaining high standards of living may choose to have part-time jobs that pay well as compared to having a full-time employment with lesser income. It is also possible for single mothers with part-time job to spend more time at work in case there is a need to earn more money to support the child’s educational need. Changes in the demographic situation also significantly affect the income and leisure distribution of each employee. In line with this, Beblo and Robledo (2003) explained that the more children a single mother ha ve, the more time she is likely to spend on working. Likewise, Glomm and Ravikumar (2003) revealed that the higher the educational attainment men and women have could also affect the kind of job employment and pay they will receive from their employer. Since there is a very tight competition in UK labour market, the less educated people are the ones who will end up having a white collar job (Turrini 1998). Having excessively high salary is not the only factor behind a person’s happiness and satisfaction with work. The available time men and women have for themselves also matters. Upon analyzing the entire situation, several studies revealed that it is necessary for men and women to be able to balance their time between work and leisure to allow them to have more quality time with their children (MacInnes, 2005; Marks et al. 2001). Between men and women, it is the women population who are mostly affected by pregnancy and the social consequences after child birth. For female em ployees to be able to recover from childbirth, this group of employees will have to file at least two to three months maternal leave before and after the schedule of delivery. Because of women’s need to divide their time between work and home obligations, less female employees are competing to reach the top-level management position as compared to their counterparts (Gutierrez-Domenech 2003). Aim of the Research Study With regards to the financial rewards and employment benefit one can have with full-time employment opportunity, this study aims to determine the reasons why most female employees have part-time job as compared to male employees. Research Objectives The research objectives will seek to identify the reasons why most women would prefer to have a part-time job as compared to full-time career. To answer the research question, the following sub-objectives will be considered in this study: Economic condition in UK A growing economy means higher demand for labour. Beca use of the high unemployment rate in UK, a lot of women who are single mothers are becoming open to grab part-time job opportunities. Increasing number of single mothers A social survey trend revealed that the number of single parent families in UK is uncontrollably increasing (BBC 2004). Aside from having more time to take care of the children, financial expenses are less burdensome in a family setting wherein a married couple shares their

Managerial Functions on Starting a Sporting Goods Store Assignment

Managerial Functions on Starting a Sporting Goods Store - Assignment Example The store is likely to deal in a variety of sports goods supplied by different manufactures of national and international repute. According to North American Industry Classification System (NAICS), a sporting goods store may be defined as "an establishment primarily engaged in retailing new sporting goods, such as bicycles and bicycle parts; camping equipment; exercise and fitness equipment; athletic uniforms; specialty sports footwear; and sporting goods, equipment, and accessories".(Small Business Notes) Planning function is fundamental to any serious and time-bond activity. In business, the importance of planning activity cannot be over emphasized. It is commonly accepted that a well formulated plan is half done of what is required to be done in future. As remarked by Arnold S. Goldstein, a good business plan is the road map to success (Goldstein 2002). However, the activities to be performed at this stage differ from business to business. The various elements of planning process of the present business can be detailed as below: 2. Finding t an appropriate location for the shop: Location is very important as it determines how successful the business is. It is advisable to find a location near schools or colleges and/or near to stadium or sports grounds. 5. 3. Complying with the legal Formalities: The following requirements are to be completed before starting the business operations in the United States (State Requirements):- a. Getting Business Licenses b. Registration for Occupations and Professions c. Licenses Based on Products Sold d. Tax Registration e. Trade Name Registration, and f. Employer Registration 4. Strategic Planning: This requires the firm to frame appropriate long term plans for the firm to survive in a competitive and highly innovative business environment. 5. Financial Planning: Initially finance is required not only to meet start up capital but for meeting day to day working capital as well. The working capital requirement of a retail shop is relatively lower than that of manufacturing firms. 6. Finding suppliers: When selecting the suppliers, the manger should take care of the reputation and reliability of the supplier and must ensure that goods are available without interruption. It is also imperative that materials are at affordable prices and good quality. Organising It is basically a function of grouping of all activities of an organisation into various departments and determining the authority and responsibility of employees assigned to various groups/departments (Kroon 1995). Since the present organisation is of trading nature, it is better not to for very complicated organisation structure. Therefore, it has been decided to follow the functional approach of organisational structure where the entire activities are grouped into departments based on the nature of function. The following departments have been formed so as to

Analysis of U.S. Service Sector Grows Slow Essay

Analysis of U.S. Service Sector Grows Slow - Essay Example Many companies in the service sector are highly dependent on their marketing efforts to achieve further growth. Many experts are worried about the deceleration in growth in the service sector. Carl Leahey, a senior Economist at Senior Economist stated, â€Å"This survey shows a slow-moving service sector. That is pretty much in line with the market sense that though the economy has improved, it is still not growing very quickly† (Bond, 2011). Despite the worries of many scholars about the service sector there are other signs that showed major improvement in the U.S. economy such as the latest unemployment figures which showed a national unemployment rate of 8.6%. The labor market is finally growing. These are great news for all Americans as employers should be aggressively recruiting new personnel. The total exports in the U.S are also on the rise. Exporting is one of the primary expansion strategies used by marketers. The inventories of many companies are moving from contract ion to expansion. The movement of merchandise from the United States to other countries is a great sign. Most companies in today’s marketplace cannot survive by using solely a domestic strategy. International expansion is one of the most effective ways marketers are able to achieve growth. Despite slight decline in the service sector other important sectors such as the manufacturing industry showed positive signs. The ISM manufacturing report showed factory activity rising more strongly than expected in November. Some critical industries such as the auto industry showed tremendous results with a rise of 2.3% in comparison with the previous month. The Big 3 auto companies have been able to attract many customers due to their new innovative designs and fuel efficient vehicles. People are looking for value in their car purchases more than ever before. Despite the growth in manufacturing activity the commerce department claimed that the sales of overall manufacturing goods fell b y 0.4% in November. One of the sectors that showed continued growth during the past three months is the sale of durable goods. This article showed a lot of information regarding the economy of the United States and it emphasize in the importance of the service sector. Due to the importance of service jobs the United States as a whole has to do a better job of marketing its service industry. The U.S. has the potential to achieve a lot of growth by exporting services to other nations. There are many ways to increase the amount of service exports. One of the best ways is to take advantage of tools that have become available due to the rise of the broadband age. In 2010 U.S. ecommerce sales generated $152.1 billion and it is expected to rise to $223.9 billion by the year 2014 (Plunkett Research, 2011). Many services such as business consulting, technical support and engineering services could be exported easily with the help of the internet. The U.S Chamber of Commerce has to become mor e proactive in their initiatives in order to market better the services that the United States can offer to the rest of the world. In 2010 the United States was the world’s top exporter of services with $515 billion (Latimes, 2011). Despite this fact the U.S. still has a lot of room to grow considering the fact that 80% of the U.S economy is based on the service industry. It is also interesting to know that he

What do I think the life of a paralegal looks like Essay

What do I think the life of a paralegal looks like - Essay Example The life of a paralegal is challenging due to the demanding tasks, strict deadlines, work overloads and long working hours. A day in the life of a paralegal often starts at 9.00 am on arrival at the office where the paralegal must go through his e-mail and check for any letters at his or her desk. The individual must first finish with any administrative duties such as filling the paperwork and responding to e-mails from clients and his or her boss. The individual is expected to interview clients and attend meetings the boss and life can be stressful especially when the individual is not aware of the current status of the ongoing cases. The opportunity to display well-honed practical legal skills presents itself when the boss calls the paralegal to prepare a legal research on a certain case. A paralegal is tasked with legal research and is one of the tasks that occupies most of the paralegal’s time since it entails looking for details of past court rulings on similar cases, court decisions, verdicts of trials and relevant statutes that support the lawyer’s case arguments. The work is tedious and time-consuming since a paralegal is expected to have the current writings and documents that uncover the facts about a case in an organized and concise manner. The individual will be required to draft and write legal documents and attorneys expect one to have top-notch writing skills. In a day, a paralegal can draft, review and write several pleadings, case findings and legal memorandums and this requires one to remain attentive to details and present the ideas coherently in the writings. The paralegal will have to prepare court memos and briefs or write minutes during meetings. Depending on the field specialization, the paralegal will assist the attorney in filing tax returns or drafting contract documents. In short, a paralegal writes many documents during his or work and advises clients on

Chemical Shale Instability & Inhibition Research Paper

Chemical Shale Instability & Inhibition - Research Paper Example From the discussion it is clear that understanding the overall behavior of shale is the core intention of this paper. Furthermore, the discussion is also aiming at understanding various types of shale drilling fluids. This also includes the use of the drilling fluids and their composition. The other key concept explored in te discussion is the mechanism involved in the development of new shale.This essay discusses Shale can be defined as a sedimentary rock which is fine grained and is composed of mineral rich mud. The mineral composition found in this mud is variable. When discussing about shale instability and inhibition. It is prudent to note that the interaction between water and the clay like material forung within the shale is the root cause (REFF). This interaction contributes to wellbore instability which thereafter result in formation of poor gause and many other anomalies. This paper targets discussing issue related to shale instability and inhibition, challenges faced and h ow to prevent such inconvenient precisely when drilling shale. There are many types of drilling fluids that serve different purpose based on the shale being encountered. For example; the drilling fluid can be air, liquid or foam which is colloid of liquid and air (REFF). The role of the drilling mud at this point is to dissipate the heat by circulating the drilling fluids (REFF). Moreover, the drilling mud also lubricates the bits and reduces friction.

Discussion Forum #1 - Becoming Human Movie Review

Discussion Forum #1 - Becoming Human - Movie Review Example The skull, sahelanthropus tchadensis was placed at a particle accelerator in France which was restructured using 3d images and reproduced in some form of 3d plastic printer. From the data results as well as the spine and it was argued that it walked upright thus becoming the oldest bipedal organism (The Antonio Kuilan Project p.12). It is paramount to note that the video described the finding stating that S. tchadensis becomes a relatively good candidate. The video brought indicated that Ardipithecus ramidus, S. tchadensis, Kenyathropas platyops and Orrorin tugensis exhibited chimp sized brains and bipedalism. Scientists try to debate and explain that one primary distinction is the length of the childhood between humans and apes. The development of apes according to the documentary takes three years whereas humans take more than two decades to develop fully. For instance, at three years of age the chimp’s brain is 90% formed but Selam showed that the brain of humans developed slowly. To find the correlation of this, the stone tools are analyzed. The way in which the stones were broken reflects primitive thinking. The Homo habilis hominin showed a larger brain size ranging from 400cc to 700cc indicating a major change in the brains structure. Scientists claim that changes in climate boosted the brain to grow. Some better problem solvers including Homo habilis survived, but A. afarensis died. Indeed, our ancestors adapted to the noted changes, thus propelling us to where we are

MACRO AND MICRO ECONOMICS Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

MACRO AND MICRO ECONOMICS - Research Paper Example Advantages of Command Economy 1. Facilitates the realization of an economy’s long term goals and objectives hence rapid development Central to the command economy is â€Å"a central planning authority† (Fernando 2011, p.115). In this kind of economy, the state establishes development goals and targets, which the planning authority plans, executes, supervises, and evaluates. The authority establishes targets and administers control aimed at realization of the overall development and economic growth objectives. The objectives usually include stability of prices, faster economic growth, and reduction of inequalities of income to avoid market failure. 2. Reduction of income and wealth inequality Command economy ensures equitable wealth distribution, which cushions any market failure in the economy. The health and education standards are also relatively higher in a command economy (â€Å"Guiding development† n.d.). For instance, in 1980s China and India had similar pe r capita incomes but China had higher primary education levels and life expectancy (â€Å"Guiding development† n.d.). Disadvantages of Command Economy 1). Misplaced Incentives- The producer’s and investors are discouraged since their efforts do not pay off well as they should. In planned economy, the state often rewards the hardworking people only with fame and honors rather than the kind of incentives any investor looks for which is profits. The planned economy focuses on equitable wealth distribution which and therefore the workers and producers are less motivated to put efforts in what they do. 2). Failure of co-ordination- Planned economies try to co-ordinate the entire economic decisions regarding production, investments, consumption, and trade made by producers and consumers. The efficiency of such regulations lacks particularly where mismatch occurs between the supply of products and the demand by consumers. Bottlenecks in production lead to a shortage of some g oods. This happens since planners may not necessarily know most essential needs to consumers at every point in time. A good example of the failure in co-ordination is what happened to Soviet Union in the late 1980s- there was a shortage in food storage and transportation while the supply of TV sets was ample (Lipsey & Chrystal 2007, p.3). 3). Slow decision making and wastes of resources- Command economy often needs many planners to run the control system which leads to slow decision making. This single control authority is charged with decisions about allocation of production means among different sectors, branches, and uses as well as the distribution of all goods. Slow decision and action about perishable goods often results in wastes. 4). Less dynamic technology economy- Few incentives to innovate leads to limited innovations. Planned economies remain behind in most of their technology with the exception of military and rocket science. This was seen in Soviet Union, which was usi ng the West’s 1930s technology in 1950s and in China which later borrowed the outdated technology from Soviet Union 5) Political repression- Governments in planned economy own the means of control and dictation of economic production and therefore civil liberties cannot be enjoyed. Conclusion The command economy has very many disadvantages and just a few advantages. Command economy is infamous and has been observed to be unstable in countries like the former Soviet Union and China where it was practiced. Trade between nations Introduction Trade between nations has the benefits for all participating countries. To some extent, all countries rely

HISTORY From Poverty to Social Exclusion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

HISTORY From Poverty to Social Exclusion - Essay Example (NEW YORK TIMES 1909) A wealthy businessman, Seebohm Rowntree is well known for his in depth analysis of poverty. When concentrating on this particular time period, he stated that in the 1890s, it was low wages that was the major cause of poverty in Great Britain (ROWNTREE 2008). The problem of unemployment was especially important in bringing about poverty in late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. "More than one-quarter of the years from 1834 to 1911 were plagued by high levels of cyclical unemployment". If a worker was unemployed for more than a couple of weeks, he would find himself in economic distress, and would have to look for government support. (BOYER 2004) A very important factor that led to poverty was widowhood. In case of the death of a husband, women were generally left without any earning family member to support them. This problem arose because at the time, it was not as easy for women to get a job as it is today. The opportunity to get a job for women was easy in the textile centers of the country, but was negligible in the mining and industrial towns. In these areas, therefore, women became victims of acute poverty when left without husbands.

John Taylor Gatto Against School Essay Example for Free

John Taylor Gatto Against School Essay When it comes to the traditional education, John Taylor Gatto’s â€Å"Against School† questions whether we really need the nine month, drawn out, traditional curriculum. Gatto goes on to name several successful people through history that were not products of a contemporary school system. When I think of Gatto’s theory of forced schooling, a friend of mine named John Smith who goes by the alias of Viper comes to mind. Viper is in his late 20’s, lives in South Philadelphia, and has worked as a Roofer for the past 10 years. Viper went to a public school in South Philadelphia. Viper went to a school where said, â€Å"It wasn’t easy. I was scrawny and white and we were poorer than the jigs that went to school wit us, so we caught alota shit.† Viper’s school was extremely underfunded. â€Å"Some days there would be trash laid out by the trash cans cause nobody would change the trash bags, the food was shit, and the bathrooms†¦forget it.† He would walk twelve blocks back to his house just to go to the bathroom. There were no extracurricular activities like book clubs and band and the school was rundown and decrepit. Eventually he started to miss classes regularly. He felt that the teachers did not care. Classes were extremely boring to him. He was actually approached by his biology teacher and told he could cut class everyday as long as he turned in his work and he would receive a D at the end of the year. He was not amused by the offer, he was not even interested in graduating anymore. â€Å"I expected to be a laborer for the rest of my life so I felt like education was unimportant.† Viper’s education started taking a back seat to work around his sophomore year of high school. He was the middle child in a family of four, all of whom have dropped out of high school and are laborers today. â€Å"My parents made me get a job when I was thirteen, that’s the way it was with all my brothers,† says Viper. Eventually he started to make a decent amount of money and admits to being extremely naà ¯ve, saying â€Å"Why the fuck was I gonna go ta school for eight more years if I was makin’ 25-30 thousand dollars a year. Do the math, instead of spendin 100 thousand dollars in college and waste my time in school I coulda made 200 thousand dollars by the time I was 24.† One day Viper decided to make an appointment with a school counselor. He was hardly going to class, working every day when he was supposed to be in school, and partying every night and having fun. School was more of a social event. He was just going to school to see his friends and make plans for the weekend. When he told the school counselor that he was planning on dropping out the counselor stood up, looked him in the eye, extended his hand and said, â€Å"Good Luck!† â€Å"The guy didn’t even give a shit!† Viper said. By the time December came around of his sophomore year, he was a high school dropout. He was working everyday by that time already so he was not stagnant. He was still living with his parents. The fact that he dropped out was ok with them because he could â€Å"contribute to the house,† as his father put it. Viper eventually saved enough money to get his own place and now lives with his wife of three years and their two children who are two and five years of age. He said, â€Å"I always thought I learned more out of school than in high school, but it’s not what my kids are gonna do†. He aspires to open his own roofing company one day. Although I do not agree with the path that Viper chose in life, he is happy and successful today. He is a great father and happily married. He does not drink anymore and devotes every second of his free time to his family. In a way he is almost a survivor to me. He is not well spoken or the brightest guy in the world, but he would d o anything in his power to help any person in a bind.

Calculations of the Spin Structure of Trimer Cr3

Calculations of the Spin Structure of Trimer Cr3 Calculation of Magnetic Properties by Generalized Spin Hamiltonian and Generation  of Global Entanglement: Cr Trimer in molecule and on surface Oleg V. Stepanyuk2, Oleg V. Farberovich1 1 Raymond and Bekerly Sackler Faculty of Exact Sciences,  School of Physics and Astronomy, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv 69978, Israel 2 Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics, Halle, Germany Here we present the results of the first-principles calculations of the spin structure of trimer Cr3  with the use of a density-functional scheme allowing for the non-collinear spin configurations in  [1]. Using the results of these calculations we determine the Heisenberg-Dirac-Van Vleck (HDVV)  Hamiltonian with anisotropic exchange couplings parameters linking the Cr ions with predominant  spin density. The energy pattern was found from the effective HDVV Hamiltonian acting in the  restricted spin space of the Cr ions by the application of the irreducible tensor operators (ITO)   technique. Comparison of the energy pattern with that obtained with the anisotropic exchange  models conventionally used for the analysis of this system and with the results of non-collinear  spin structure calculations show that our complex investigations provides a good description of the  pattern of the spin levels and spin structures of the nanomagnetic trimer Cr3. The results are   discussed in the view of a general problem of spin frustration related to the orbital degeneracy of  the antiferromagnetic ground state.   PACS numbers: I. INTRODUCTION Information technologies provide very interesting challenges  and an extremely wide playground in which scientists  working in materials science, chemistry, physics and  nano-fabrication technologies may find stimuli for novel  ideas. Curiously, the nanometre scale is the molecular  scale. So we may wonder whether, how or simply which  functional molecules can be regarded in some ways as  possible components of nanodevices. The goal is ambitious: it is not just a matter to store information in a 3dmetal  trimer on a non-magnetic substrate, but we may  think to process information with a trimer and then to  communicate information at the supramolecules containg  from magnetic 3d-metal trimer on a surface. Spins are alternative complementary to charges as degrees  of freedom to encode information. Recent examples,  like for instance the discovery and application of Giant  magnetoresistance in Spintronics, have demonstrated  the efficient use of spins for information technologies. Moreover, spins are intrinsically quantum entities and  they have therefore been widely investigated in the field  of quantum-information processing. Molecular nanomagnets  are real examples of finite spin chains (1D) or clusters  (0D), and therefore they constitute a new benchmark  for testing models of interacting quantum objects. New physics of molecular magnets feeds hopes of certain  prospective applications, and such hopes pose the  problem of understanding, improving, or predicting desirable  characteristics of these materials. The applications  which come into discussion are, for instance, magnetic  storage (one molecule would store one bit, with  much higher information storage density than accessible  with microdomains of present-day storage media or magnetic  nanoparticles of next future). In order to exploit  the quantum features for information processing, molecular  spin clusters have to fulfil some basic requirements. Magnetic transition metal nanostructures on nonmagnetic  substrates have attracted recently large attention  due to their novel and unusual magnetic properties[2,3]. The supported clusters experience both the  reduction of the local coordination number, as in free  clusters, as well as the interactions with the electronic  degrees of freedom of the substrate, as in embedded clusters.   The complex magnetic behavior is usually associated  with the competition of several interactions, such  as interatomic exchange and bonding interactions, and  in some cases noncollinear effects, which can give rise to  several metastable states close in energy. The ground  state can therefore be easily tuned by external action  giving rise to the switching between different states. In recent years, entanglement has attracted the attention  of many physicists working in the area of quantum  mechanics [1, 2]. This is due to the ongoing research in  the area of quantum information [3]. Theoretical studies  are also important in the context of spin interactions  inside two structured reservoirs [9] such as single magnetic  molecule (SMM) and metal cluster on nonmagnetic  surface. Cr is unique among the transition-metal  adatoms, because its half-filled valence configuration  (3d54s1) yields both a large magnetic moment and strong  interatomic bonding leading to magnetic frustration. We  apply our method to Cr trimers deposited on a Au(111)  surface and the trinuclear hydroxo-bridged chromium  ammine complex [Cr3(NH3)10(OH)4]Br5  · 3H2O. Low-lying excited states of a magnetic system are generally  described in terms of a general spin-Hamiltonian. For a magnetic system with many spin sites, this phenomenological  Hamiltonian is written as a sum of pairwise  spin exchange interactions between adjacent spin  sites in molecule and surface. In the present work we study entanglement between  the spin states in the spin spectrum. In our model, a  spin state interact with a continuum of the spin structure  at interval temperature 0 – 300 K, and entanglement  properties between the spin states in spin structure are  considered. Using global entanglement as a measure of  entanglement, we derive a pair of distributions that can  be interpreted as densities of entanglement in terms of  all the eigenvalue of the spin spectrum. This distribution  can be calculated in terms of the spectrum of spin excitation  of cluster surface and supramolecule. With these  new measures of entanglement we can study in detail  entanglement between the spin modes in spin structure. The method developed here, in terms of entanglement  distributions, can also be used when considering various  types of structured reservoirs [..]. II. THE THEORETICAL APPROACH In order to give a theoretical description of magnetic  dimer we exploit the irreducible tensor operator (ITO)  technique [ITO]. Let us consider a spin cluster of arbitrary  topology formed from an arbitrary number of magnetic  sites, N, with local spins S1, S2,, SN which, in  general, can have different values. A successive spin coupling  scheme is adopted: S1 + S2 = SËÅ"2, SËÅ"2 + S3 = SËÅ"3, , SNËÅ"à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬1 + SN = S, where ËÅ" S represents the complete set of intermediate spin  quantum numbers SËÅ"k, with k=1,2,,N-1.The eigenstates  | và ¢Ã… ¸Ã‚ © of spin-Hamiltonian will be given by linear combinations  of the basis states | ( ËÅ" S)SMà ¢Ã… ¸Ã‚ ©: | và ¢Ã… ¸Ã‚ © = ÃŽ £ (~S )SM à ¢Ã… ¸Ã‚ ¨(~S )SM | và ¢Ã… ¸Ã‚ © | (~S )SMà ¢Ã… ¸Ã‚ ©, (1) where the coefficients à ¢Ã… ¸Ã‚ ¨( ËÅ" S)SM | và ¢Ã… ¸Ã‚ © can be evaluated once  the spin-Hamiltonian of the system has been diagonalized. Since each term of spin-Hamiltonian can be rewritten  as a combination of the irreducible tensor operators  technique[ITO].In [ITO] work focus on the main physical  interactions which determine the spin-Hamiltonian and  to rewrite them in terms of the ITO’s. The exchange  part of the spin-Hamiltonian is to introduced: Hspin = H0 + HBQ + HAS + HAN. (2) The first term H0 is the Heisenberg-Dirac Hamiltonian,  which represents the isotropic exchange interaction, HBQ  is the biquadratic exchange Hamiltonian, HAS is the antisymmetric  exchange Hamiltonian,and HAN represents  the anisotropic exchange interaction. Conventionally,  they can be expressed as follows [ITO]: H0 = −2 ÃŽ £ i;f Jif bSi bSf (3) HBQ = − ÃŽ £ i;f jif ( bSi bSf )2 (4) HAS = ÃŽ £ i;f Gif [ bSi Ãâ€" bSf ] (5) HAN = −2 ÃŽ £ i;f ÃŽ £ _ J_ if bS_ i bS_ f (6) with ÃŽ ± = x, y, z We can add to the exchange Hamiltonian  the term due to the axial single-ion anisotropy: HZF = ÃŽ £ i Di bSz(i)2 (7) where Jif and J_   if are the parameters of the isotropic and  anisotropic exchange iterations, jif are the coefficients of  the biquadratic exchange iterations,and Gif=-Gfi is the  vector of the antisymmetric exchange. The terms of the  spin-Hamiltonian above can be written in terms of the  ITO’s. Both the Heisenberg–Dirac and biquadratic exchange  are isotropic interactions. In fact, the corresponding  Hamiltonians can be described by rank-0 tensor operators  and thus have non zero matrix elements only  with states with the same total spin quantum number  S (ΔS,ΔM=0). The representative matrix can be decomposed  into blocks depending only on the value of S  and M. All anisotropic terms are described by rank-2  tensor operators which have non zero matrix elements  between state with ΔS=0, ±1, ±2 and their matrices can  not be decomposed into blocks depending only on total  spin S in account of the S–mixing between spin states  with different S. The single-ion anisotropy can be written  in terms of rank-2 single site ITO’s [ITO]. Finally,  the antisymmetric exchange term is the sum of ITO’s of  rank-1. The ITO technique has been used to design the MAGPACK  software [ITO1], a package to calculate the energy  levels, bulk magnetic properties, and inelastic neutron  scattering spectra of high nuclearity spin clusters that  allows studying efficiently properties of nanoscopic magnets. A. Calculation of the magnetic properties Once we have the energy levels, we can evaluate different  thermodynamic properties of the system as magnetization,  magnetic susceptibility, and magnetic specific  heat. Because anisotropic interactions are not included,  the magnetic properties of the anisotropic system do not  depend on the direction of the magnetic field. For this  reason one can consider the magnetic field directed along  arbitrary axis Z of the molecular coordinate frame that  is chosen as a spin quantization axis. In this case the  energies of the system will be à Ã‚ µ_(Ms)+geÃŽ ²MsHZ, where  Ãƒ Ã‚ µ_(Ms) are the eigenvalues of the Hamiltonian containing  magnetic exchange and double exchange contributions  (index ÃŽ ¼ runs over the energy levels with given total  spin protection Ms). Then the partition function in the  presence of the external magnetic field is given by: Z(HZ) = ÃŽ £ Ms;_ exp[−à Ã‚ µ_(Ms)/kT] ÃŽ £ Ms exp[−geÃŽ ²MsHZ/kT] (8) Using this expression one can evaluate the magnetic susceptibility  Ãâ€¡ and magnetization M by standart thermodinamical  definitions: χ = ( ∂M ∂H ) H!0 (9) M(H) = NkT ∂lnZ ∂H (10) B. Entanglement in N-spin system Entanglement has gained renewed interest with the development  of quantum information science. The problem  of measuring entanglement is a vast and lively field of research  in its own. In this section we attempt to solve the  problem of measuring entanglement in the N-spin cluster  and supramolecules systems. Based on the residual  entanglement [9] (Phys. Rev. A 71, 044301 (2005)), we  present the global entanglement for a N-spin state for the  collective measures of multiparticle entanglement. This  measures introduced by Meyer andWallach[..]. The MeyerWallach  (MW) measure written in the Brennen form (G.K.Brennen,Quantum.Inf.Comp.,v.3,619 (2003)) is: Q(ψ) = 2(1 − 1 N ÃŽ £N k=1 Tr[Ï 2 k]) (11) where Ï k is the reduced density matrix for k-th qubit.   The problem of entanglement between a spin states in  N-spin systems is becoming more interesting when considering  clusters or molecules with a spectral gap in their  densities of states. For quantifying the distribution of  entanglement between the individual spin eigenvalues in  spin structure of N-spin system we use the density of entanglement. The density of entanglement ÃŽ µ(à Ã‚ µ_, à Ã‚ µ_, à Ã‚ µ)dà Ã‚ µ gives the entanglement between the spin eigenvalue à Ã‚ µ_ and spin eigenvalue à Ã‚ µ_ with in an energy interval à Ã‚ µ_ to à Ã‚ µ_ + dà Ã‚ µ_. One can show that entanglement distribution can be  written in terms of spectrum of spin exitation S(à Ã‚ µ_, à Ã‚ µ) = |c_|2 ÃŽ ´(à Ã‚ µ − à Ã‚ µ_) (12) and ÃŽ µ(à Ã‚ µ_, à Ã‚ µ_, à Ã‚ µ) = 2S(à Ã‚ µ_, à Ã‚ µ)S(à Ã‚ µ_, à Ã‚ µ) (13) where coefficient c_ = à ¢Ã… ¸Ã‚ ¨( ËÅ" S)SM | và ¢Ã… ¸Ã‚ © is eigenvector of the  spin-Hamiltonian of the cluster or supramolecule. Thus,  entanglement distributions can be derived from the excitation  spin spectrum Q(à Ã‚ µ) = 1− 2Δ2 Ï€2N ÃŽ £N _=1 |c_|2 (à Ã‚ µ − à Ã‚ µ_)2 + Δ2 ÃŽ £N _=_+1 |c_|2 (à Ã‚ µ − à Ã‚ µ_)2 + Δ2 (14) Though the very nature of entanglement is purely  quantum mechanical, we saw that it can persist for  macroscopic systems and will survive even in the thermodynamical  limit. In this section we discuss how it  behaves at finite temperature of thermal entanglement. The states in N-spin system describing a system in thermal  equilibrium states, are determined by the Generalized  spin-Hamiltonian and thermal density matrix Ï (T) = exp(−Hspin/kT) Z(HZ) (15) where Z(HZ) is the partition function of the N-spin system. The thermal entanglement is Q(à Ã‚ µ, T,HZ) = 1 − 2Δ2 Ï€2NZ(HZ)2 ÃŽ £N _=1 |c_|2 exp[−à Ã‚ µ_/kT] (à Ã‚ µ − à Ã‚ µ_)2 + Δ2 Ãâ€" (16) ÃŽ £N _=_+1 |c_|2 exp[−à Ã‚ µ_/kT] (à Ã‚ µ − à Ã‚ µ_)2 + Δ2 The demonstration of quantum entanglement, however,  can also be directly derived from experiments, without  requiring knowledge of the system state. This can be  done by using specific operators–the so-called entanglement  witnesses–whose expectation value is always positive  if the state Ï  is factorizable. It is quite remarkable  that some of these entanglement witnesses coincide  with well-known magnetic observables, such as energy  or magnetic susceptibility χ = dM/dB. In particular,  the magnetic susceptibility of N spins s, averaged over  three orthogonal spatial directions, is always larger than  a threshold value if their equilibrium state Ï  is factorizable: ÃŽ £ g χg > Ns/kBT [EW]. This should not be surprising,  since magnetic susceptibility is proportional to  the variance of the magnetization, and thus it may actually  quantify spin.spin correlation. The advantage in  the use of this criterion consists in the fact that it does  not require knowledge of the system Hamiltonian, provided  that this commutes with the Zeeman terms corresponding  to the three orthogonal orientations of the  magnetic field ÃŽ ± = x, y, z. As already mentioned, in  the case of the Cr3 trimer, the effective Hamiltonian includes,  besides the dominant Heisenberg interaction J ∠¼118 meV , smaller anisotropic terms G ∠¼ 1.1 meV and  D ∠¼ 0.18 meV , due to which the above commutation relations  are not fulfilled. This might, in principle, result in  differences between the magnetic susceptibility and the  entanglement witness WE (see Fig.). Apparently, the  difference is quite essential and therefore it is necessary to use a formula for global entanglement Q(ψ) in N-spin  system. 4 10−1 100 101 102 103 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 The calculated difference à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ½EW(T)−EWa(T)à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ½/EW(T)for Cr3 isosceles trimer T(K) à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ½EW(T)−EWa(T)à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ½/EW(T) FIG. 1: (Color online) The calculated difference j EW(T) à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬ EWa(T) j =EW(T) for Cr3 isosceles trimer 0 100 200 300 400 0 2 4 6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 Angle(Degrees) The calculated M(H) for Cr3 isosceles trimer H(T) M(à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚ ¬B) FIG. 2: (Color online)Magnetization M(H) of the Cr3  isoscales trimer on metal surface as a function of angles from 0 to 360 degree C. Thermal global entanglement in static magnetic _eld 5 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 The calculated variation of M(H) vs angle (magnetization switching) Angle(Degrees) M(à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚ ¬B) 0.1Ts 0.2Ts 0.5Ts 1.0Ts FIG. 3: (Color online)The calculated variation of M(H) vs  angle (magnetization switching) for Cr3 isoscales trimer   FIG. 4: (Color online)The calculated density of global entanglement  vs temperature and energy for Cr3 isoscales trimer 6 0 100 200 300 400 0 2 4 6 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 Angle(Degrees) The calculated M(H) for Cr3 molecular magnet H(T) M(à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚ ¬B) FIG. 5: (Color online)Magnetization M(H) of the Cr3 molecular  magnet as a function of angles from 0 to 360 degree 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 The calculated variation of M(H) vs angle (magnetization switching) Angle(Degrees) M(à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚ ¬B) 0.1Ts 0.2Ts 0.5Ts 1.0Ts FIG. 6: (Color online)The calculated variation of M(H) vs  angle (magnetization switching) for Cr3 molecular magnet 7 FIG. 7: (Color online)The calculated density of global entanglement  vs temperature and energy for Cr3 molecular magnet  FIG. 8: (Color online)The calculated entanglement for the  Cr3 isoscales trimer as a function of temperature and the  magnitude of the magnetic field Hpar. 8 FIG. 9: (Color online)The calculated entanglement for the  Cr3 isoscales trimer as a function of temperature and the  magnitude of the magnetic field Hper. FIG. 10: (Color online)The calculated entanglement for the  Cr3 isoscales trimer as a function of temperature and the magnitude  of the magnetic field Hav. 9 FIG. 11: (Color online)The calculated entanglement for the  Cr3 molecular magnet as a function of temperature and the  magnitude of the magnetic field Hav.

The Concept Of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour Commerce Essay

The Concept Of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour Commerce Essay The concept of OCB has been implemented in organizations for their effective functioning and has promoted such behavior in public and private organizations, but in educational education institution OCB is still an unfamiliar concept. Thus, OCB is a useful term to describe voluntary teacher behavior that go Extra Mile to help students and colleagues to succeed. Thus, the study of OCB and effectiveness of teachers is vital so as to motivate them to do beyond of their formal duties and making effectiveness/performance of teachers as required for the betterment of institution. Thus, teachers in well functioning education institutions consistently go beyond the minimum expectations of formal job descriptions and contracts, hence, demonstrating goodwill, smooth functioning and efficiency of education institutions. Thus teachers in universities with high citizenship take it upon themselves to voluntare innovative suggestions, sponsor extra-curricular activities and serve on new comities and seminars more related to their studies. Moreover, teachers help students on their own time, stay after university to help students if necessary and resist the temptation to give students busy in work. Organizational citizenship behavior in universities provides a serious educational context in which teachers are rarely absent, make effective use of their time, work collaborately and emphasize on professional activities which results in increase of their effectiveness and directly influence the performance of teachers. The term OCB was first introduced by Bateman and Organ (1973). Background of the study. Organ (1988) originally coined the term organization citizenship behavior (OCB) and defined them as individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization. Also the willingness of the participant to go beyond the formal requirements of their position has been recognized as an essential component of the effective organization. Thus, OCBs can be said to lubricate the social machinery of the organization. Organ (1988) provided a multidimensional scale of OCB. The scale consists of five dimensions that make up the OCB construct the five dimensions are: Altruism: It is the behavior directed at helping a specific person at work (e.g. coworkers or supervisor). For example, altruism involves activities such as volunteering to assist a coworker with a project in you are not directly involves activities, or without being asked, assisting new employees. Compliance: Generalized compliance is employee conscientiousness that surpass enforceable work standards. For example, generalized compliance involves activities such as doing more than what is required to meet minimum task requirements or offering specific ideas to solve organizational problems without being asked. Sportsmanship: Sportsmanship is the tolerance of nuisances on the job (e.g. when employee endure impositions or inconveniences without compliant). Sportsmanship involves activities such not complaining or making huge issues out of minor problems or inconveniences. Courtesy: Courtesy is the act of touching the base with others before taking actions or making decisions that would affect their work (e.g. issuing reminders to coworkers, giving coworkers advance notice and passing along information). Civic Virtue: Civic virtue is the active participation and involvement of employees in company affairs and includes activities such as attending meetings, responding to messages and keeping up with organizational issues. As an example of different conceptualizations of OCB Statement of the problem. Teaching effectiveness is a major goal of education. It is recognized that teaching effectiveness has a far-fetched effect on the overall educational programme. Teachers competence refer to the behavior while teaching in a class. Effective teachers use pupils time differently than the less effective ones. Effective teachers spend more time in academic activities and teaching learning process. They inculcate the ideas into the minds of the students by applying various teaching strategies for this purpose they become humorists and witty in the classroom. They concentrate on communication skills. They focus on the subject matter and monitor the overall educational activities in classroom specifically and in the educational institution in general effectiveness in the sence that optimal results or near to such is obtained on the part of the pupils we in Pakistan are divided into different types of educational systems i.e. Government run, private and Madrassas or Maktabs. The teaching stan dard is different. Their evaluation criterion is also different. More conveniently, the curriculum and examination system are not the same. Due to these reasons the effectiveness need to be evaluated and its relationship with organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). But as an individual each of the employee, whether he/she is a teacher or not, must be able to show the most favourable results in their respective fields. Different approaches are followed to assess effectiveness. It is conditional to the concerned field for which the employees contribution is judged. The variables or yardsticks may be different; the ultimate purpose is the same Effectiveness. Similar is the case with measuring organizational citizenship behaviour Objectives of the study. The main objective of this study is to find out any relationship between organizational citizenship behavior and effectiveness of university teachers. Finding on job or internal factors that influence a teacher organizational citizenship behavior and his/her effectiveness. The extent of personal growth and overall integrity provided by the institution. Giving recommendations for further improvement. 1.4 Scope of the study A teacher can be effective if he/she gets out of the job what he wants to get. There is a close relationship between organizational citizenship behavior and effectiveness (teaching). Falling standard of education is common now a days. So one may blame the teachers responsible for the deterioration of education teachers may be termed responsible but identification of the facts of their job, which sometimes lead the teachers towards ineffectiveness is also the responsibility of the system. These facts belong to both the external and internal environments of the teachers this study will help in the finding of such factors. CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE Organizational citizenship behaviors and performance has actually the subject matter of numerous research scholars. They have conducted various research studies and collections. The views of the various research scholars regarding organizational citizenship behavior and performance are enumerated as under. 2.1 Employee Behavior and Job Performance. Rotundo and Sacket (2000, P. 66) defined job performance as those actions and behaviors that are under control of the individuals and that contribute to the achievement of the organizations objectives. In higher education setting, Regoxs (2003) finds support for the relationship between OCB and the performance of university teachers, and in turns of students professional motivation and self confidence. His finding suggest that university teacher OCB may be associated with the quality of the teaching learning processes, however, that association is a unpublished to date. Most of the early research on OCB focused on its antecedents. More recently, increasing attention has been paid to the consequences of OCB (Padaskoff, et al.,2000). Finding from this line of research indicate that OCB has important consequences for both the organization and individual employee (Podaskoff, et al.,2000). At the organizational level, studies indicate that OCB I related to organization effectiveness (Podsakoff, Ahearne, and Mackenzie, 1997; Podsakoff and Mackenzie, 1994; Walz and Wiehoff, 1996). At the individual level, OCB has been found to affect supervisory evaluations of employee performance (Podaskoff, Mackenzie and Hui, 1993) reward recommendations . Katz (1964) states that three basic types of employee behaviors are critical for the overall effectiveness of any organization. People must be induced to remain within the system. People must carry out their role assignment in a dependable fashion. There must be innovative and spontaneous activity in achieving organizational objectives that goes beyond the role specifications. Behaviors (2) and (3) are the examples of Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) (Organ, 1988) other examples of OCB are willingness to give time helping others who have work-related problems, taking steps to prevent problems with other worker and obeying organization rules, regulations and procedures even when no one is watching. Postulating that OCB may lead to positive outcomes such as high organizational performance and low turnover, researcher have investigated key antecedents of OCB (e.g Moorman, 1991; Organ and Konvovsky 1996; Podsakoff et al., 1990; Smith et al., 1983). Gregory Murphy et al., (2002) made a study to examine the role of OCB as a component of job performance. Participants comprised 41 human-service workers, who completed a job satisfaction questionnaire and were rated for their organizational citizenship, as well as being measured on three discretionary organizational participant behaviours job satisfaction correlated significantly with organizational citizenship behavior (Correlations ranged from + 0.40 to 0.67). 2.2 Factors Effecting the Organizational Behavior. Carol C. Bienstock, et al., (2003) have investigated that OCB links human resource management policies to desired service employee performance, enhancing customer perceptions of service quality and organizational financial outcomes. Furthermore, it demonstrates that these behaviors results in more effective service delivery to an organizational standards and enhance customer perceptions of service quality. Aaron Cohen, et al., (2004) were find the relationship between the dimensions of professionalism (profession as referred, sence of calling autonomy) and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) was direct or mediated by variables representing justice perceptions (distributive justice, international justice, and formal procedures). Respondents were 1,0.35 registered nurses in four public hospitals in northern isreal. Supervisors in each medical unit at the hospitals provided data strongly supported the mediated model, namely the relationship between professionalism and OCB was mediated by variables representing justice in the workplace. The mediated effect as stronger for jewish nurses than for non-jewish nurses and for nurses with academic education in comparison to nurses with a non-academic educational several implications are drawn for the continuing examination of OCB. Carmen Barroso Castro, et al., (2004) have analyzed the effect of the service company employee behavior on customer perceptions of the quality of services received, and the consequent company performance. Organizational citizenship behavior has been recognized as relevant behavior of some employee, but its role regarding customer perceptions and company profitability remains unexplored. Beginning with a brief review of the conceptual background of the organizational citizenship behavior, service quality, and its consequence, this paper proposes a model to test these relationships empirically. Daniel J. Comeau et al., (2005) have conducted experiment on how the interaction of interdependence work environment and employee personality affect organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Structural interdependence, as defined by levels of tasks and goal interdependence, was manipulated in the laboratory setting to determine the effect on individual level OCB. Also, a regression analysis was utilized to determine whether interdependence could act as a moderator for the relationship between the personality variable agree bleness and OCB and conscientiousness and OCB. Ferry Koster et al., (2006) have conducted a survey and gathered data from 674 employees nine organizations scales are constructed using multiple group method. OLS regression is used to test the hypothesis, which contribute to the literature on OCB by examining how this kind of behavior is affected by the behavior of the supervisors and coworkers and this article also focus on horizontal and vertical dimensions of cooperative behavior simultaneously. Jose Varela Gonzalez, et al., (2006) have shown the relationship between organization service orientation (OSO), contact employee job satisfaction and organization citizenship behavior (OCB). For this they have carried a survey of 149 hotels firms which provides eimperical evidence about the positive effect of the OSO on employee job satisfaction and citizenship behavior in the hospitality industry. Soumend Biswas et al., (2007) indicated the relationship between psychological climate and employee performance, in the Indian environment that includes organization citizenship behavior (OCB) and job satisfaction as mediating variables. Data were taken from 357 managerial employees in the manufacturing and service sector to analyze the relationship. The result supports the hypothesis that individuals perceptions of the psychological climate in the organization has a significant positive impact on his/her willingness to engage in OCBs, as well as on his/her job satisfaction levels. Further, OCB and job satisfaction levels have a significant impact on individuals performance. Jawahar, I.M and Dean Carr (2007) conducted and survey to measure conscientiousness and contextual performance of professional employees. Data of 158 professional employees were subjected to confirmatory factor analysis and moderate hierarchical analysis was used to test hither to untested hypothesis. This study makes several contributions. For instance, it extends Motowildo et al., theory to include subjective measures of situational conditions as factor that interact with personality to influence contextual performance the study responds to lepline et als call for theory based attempts to identify variable that have different relationships across the dimensions of contextual performance. Drawing on individual difference and social exchange perspectives this study theorized and found that perceived organizational supports moderates the relationship between conscientiousness and organization directed contextual performance and that the quality of the leader member exchange experience moderates the relationship between conscientiousness and supervisor directed contextual performance. EVIJ, Hetty et a., (2007) examined the relationship between personality and three types of OCBs (Organizational Citizenship Behaviors), and to test for the potential moderating effects of team leader effectiveness on the relationship between personality and OCBs. Hypothesis were test with data from 268 teachers of secondary schools. The result indicate that extroverts and teachers open for experience engage more in OCBs towards their school than introverts and teachers less open for experience do. Teachers that are more conscientious score higher on OCBs towards students. That fits with the idea that being conscientious is being careful and responsible. Teachers with introverts and neurotic personalities become more engage in OCBs than extroverts and emotionally stable teachers do when they appreciate their team leader effectiveness. Omer Torlak and Umut Koc (2007) has made a study in which they examined the relationship between the materialistic attitudes of sales people working in pharmaceutical and household white goods and furniture (HWGF) sectors and their OCB. A total of 199 sales people who work for pharmaceutical and HWGF sectors in Eskischir, Turkey were surveyed. The questionnaire consisted of two scales to measure materialistic tendencies and OCB, respectively. The results of the study early indicate that materialistic attitude is one of the antecedents that have a negative impact on OCB. There are negative correlations between all dimensions of OCB and materialistic attitude. Manrique de Lara, PZ et al., (2007) have examined the relationship between an unfavourable attitudinal environment and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) the proposed model suggests that organization anomic (OA) acts as a moderator of that link, and thus OA interacts with unfavourable attitudes and OCB by tightening their theoretical negative association. Data collected from 154 non teaching staff at a Spanish public university. Accessibility of the individual email accounts was similar for all employees. E-mail asking for collaboration were sent in two phases. A questionnaire was posted on the university interanet and could be accessed by clicking on a link in the e-mails multiple hierarchical regression results support the moderating role of OA of the unfavourable attitude OCB link because the unfavourable attitudes towards coworkers and towards the boss as-a-person among employees with compared with high OA, have a stronger negative relationship with OCB. OA moderation exis ted, but to varying degrees, between attitudes toward. Ones job and some dimensions of OCB (OCBI, and OCBI client). OA also intensified the unpredicted positive relationship between attitudes toward bosss performance and OCB. No moderating influences were observed in the case of attitudes toward oneself and toward clients (students). R. Gert et al., (2007) has conducted a survey of the development of the knowledge sharing and the role of knowledge sharing in predicting turnover intensions of registered professional nurses. A literature study was conducted to determine the concepts and activities linked to knowledge sharing in order to compile the questionnaire. The questionnaire was factor analyzed in order to determine the factor structure of the instrument. Thereafter, the construct of knowledge sharing was introduced together with organization culture and various proposed mediating variables, namely organizational commitment, organizational citizenship behavior and job satisfaction, as well as various demographic variables to develop a predictive model of turnover intentions through applying general linear modeling. A cross sectional field survey design was used with a sample of 530 registered professional nurses in south Africa. A significant negative relationship was found between knowledge sharing behavior and turnover intentions. Furthermore, knowledge sharing interaction with organization culture in a final model where all the selected mediating and demographic variables were simultaneously entered into the equation to predict turnover intentions. Kim, Sangmook (2006) the main theme of this study is to investigate whether the distinct classes of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) such as altruism and generalized compliance are shown in the Korean context, and whether public service motivation, job satisfaction and organizational commitment are predictors of OCB in Korean civil servants. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) is applied to survey data of 1584 civil servants in Korea to examine the relationship between predictors and two dimensions of OCB. This analyzed the effect of public service motivation on OCB, and shows that public service motivation emerges as a more significant predictor of OCB in the public sector of Korea. It contributes to enhancing the applicability and meaningfulness of the concept of OCB across different cultures. Juliana D. Lilly et al., (2006) have made a study on the effect that work locus of control has on perceptions of trust, perceived organizational support, procedural justice and interactional justice. Data were collected from 679 alumi of a university in the southwestern USA. Regression analyses and structural equation modeling were used to test a series of hypotheses. The result indicate that work locus of control has a significant positive relationship on all variables. Perceived organizational support fully mediated the relationship between the work locus of control and perceptions of both procedural and interacional justice. Organizational trust fully mediated the relationship between work locus of control and interactional justice, but only partially mediated the relationship between work locus of control and procedural justice. 2.3 Perception Regarding OCB Caroline Aube et al., (2007) have conducted a research on that perceived organizational support (POS) is positively and significantly correlated with affective and normative commitment. The sample data includes 249 prison employees, that is by questionnaires. The results of hierarchical multiple regression analysis also support the moderating effect of locus of control and work autonomy with regard to the relationship between POS and affective commitment. This study highlights the importance of providing support to employees in order to faster their affective and normative commitment to the organization. Moreover, the results provide evidence in favour of managerial interventions aimed at enhancing perceived control and consequently, minimizing the negative effects of a lack of organization support on employees affective commitment. In addition to taking into account here dimensions of organizational commitment, this study underlines personality and job design factors that can modulate the relationship between POS and organizational commitment. Joo Y. Jung et al., (2008) have explore the relationship between the organizational culture (Organizational Citizenship Behavior OCB), TQM practice and organizational performance of the manquiladora companies. A structural equation modeling based on a cross sectional survey (N = 230) is conducted. As multinational companies (MNCs) implement innovative management methodology such as TQM practices, their organizational culture elements play significant roles towards the outcome. The organizational culture, represented by OCB, significantly impacts how TQM is managed and implemented. Furthermore, the result point out soft TQM elements have more significant impact than hard TQM element towards firms performance. The findings suggest that management should also focus on the intrinsic motivations of employees represented by OCB rather than the role emphasis on training and education. 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY `The previous chapter shows that a lot of research has been carried out in the past to study the relationship f organizational citizenship behavior with different variables. Here is another attempt to evaluate the correlation between organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) and effectiveness of teachers a case study of University of Peshawar this chapter consists of population, sampling, sources of data collection, method for gathering data and statistical analysis. 3.1 Purpose of the Study As stated earlier the main purpose of the study is to find out the relationship between organizational citizenship behavior and effectiveness of university teachers. 3.2 Population All teachers working in University of Peshawar constitute the population for this research study. 3.3 Sampling Sampling is a process of selecting a sufficient number of elements from the population, (i.e. sample), so that a study of the sample and understanding of its properties or characteristics would make it possible for us to generalize such properties or characteristics to the population elements for example sample statistic X (the sample mean) and S (standard deviation) are used as estimates of the population parameter m and d . 3.4 Stratified Random Sampling Method As its name implies, involves a process of stratification or segregation, followed by random selection of subjects from each stratum. The population is first divided into mutual exclusive i.e. each of the groups should be internally homogenous and externally different from one another, groups that are relevant, appropriate and meaningful in the context of the study and subjects are selected randomly from each stratum. In the present research case a proportionate stratified random sample is used because there is a probability that the population frame of different stratum may be the same sample and the same percentage of population is taken. For the purpose of collecting data the University of Peshawar having faculties of Arts and Humanities, Islamic and oriented studies, life and environmental sciences, management and information sciences, numerical and physical sciences and faculty of social sciences have been considered as a stratum. Employees of each strata have been selected thro ugh stratified random sample for the comparative study. 3.5 Hypothesis Null Hypothesis: Ho: Teachers have OCB and teachers have not OCB are equally effective. Alternative Hypothesis (HA): Teachers have OCB is more effective than teachers have not OCB. 3.6 Research Tools/Instruments The following two instruments will be used and utilized for collecting and gathered data. They are: Questionnaire Observation check list 3.7 Test Statistic Sometimes, the actual measurement or counts of individual or objects are either not available, or accurate assessment is not possible, they are then arranged in order according to some characteristics of interest. Such an ordered arrangement is called a ranking and the order given to an individual or object is called its rank. The correlation between such sets of ranking is known as Rank correlation. By formula: Where di = xi yi xi is the first observation yi is the 2nd observation It is known as spearmans coefficient of Rank correlation. has the least value and is zero when the numbers are incomplete agreement. i.e. When they are in complete disagreement attains the maximum value equal to rs = -1 for = In case any tied observation is found the formula becomes. r = Where xi and yi are ranks given to two objects. ÃŽÂ £ stands for summation/sum x stands for organizational citizenship behavior-OCB y stands for effectiveness of teaching n stands for number of observation. LITERATURE CITED Bateman and Organ (1973). Employee Psyche, International Journal of Manpower, Vol 27, pp. 728 Bateman and Organ (1973). Employee Psyche, International Journal of Manpower, Vol 27, pp. 728 B. Soumendu, V. Arup (2007) Psychological climate and individual performance in India: test of mediated model, Employee Relations, Vol. 29, No.5 C. Aaron, K. Yardena (2004) Professionalism and OCB: An eimperical examination among isreali nurses Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 19 No. 9 C.B. Carmen, A.M. Armario, R.M. David (2004) The Influence of employee organizational Citizenship behavior on customer loyality. Internal Journal of Service Industry Management Vol. 15 No. 1 C.J. Daniel, G.L. Richard (2005) Structural Interdependence, Personality and organizational citizenship behavior: An examination of personal environment interaction, Personal Review, Vol. 34 No. 3. G. Teresa, G.V. Jose (2006) Structural relationships between organizational service orientation, contact employee job satisfaction and citizenship behavior, International Journal of Service Industry Management, Vol. 17 No. 1. H. Soonkwan, J.Y. Joo (2008) Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), TQM and performance at the maquiladora, International Journal of Quality and Reliability Management, VOl. 25 J. Everd, R. Gert (2007) The development of a knowledge sharing construct to predict turnover intentions, Aslib proceedings New Information Jawahar I.M, C. Dean (2007) Conscientiousness and contextual performance, the compensatory effects of perceived organizational support and leader member exchange, Journal of Management Psychology, Vol. 22 No. 4. Katz (1964) Effects of Organizational Citizen Ship, Management Research News, Vol. 5 K, Sungmook (2006) Public service motivation and organizational citizenship behavior, International Journal of Manpower, Vol 27, pp. 728 K. Ferry, S. Karin (2006) Organizational citizens or reciprocal relationships: An eimperical comparison Personal Review, Vol. 35 No. 5 Lara.de, R. Espino (2007) Organizational anomie as moderator of the relationship between an unfavourable attitudinal environment and citizenship behavior (OCB): An eimperical study among university administration and service personal, Personal Review, Vol. 36 No. 6 M. Gregory, A. James, K. Neville (2002) Job satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship behavior: A study of Australian human service professionals Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 17 No. 4 P. 288 M. Gregory, A. James, K. Neville (2002) Job satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship behavior: A study of Australian human service professionals Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 17 No. 4 P. 288 Organ (1988) Concepts of Organisational Behaviour , Employee Relations, Vol. 29, T. Omer, K. Unut (2007) Materialistic attitude as an antecedent of organizational citizenship behavior, Management Research News, Vol. 30 No. 8

Malcolm X :: essays research papers

The civil rights movement was a very grueling period in American history, this period promoted social and economic independence for blacks. In order to unite and to better spread the messages of the civil rights movement to other blacks throughout the country many black organizations choose leaders with powerful speaking skills to spread there messages. One of the most influential leaders of the civil rights movement was a young Muslim preacher by the name of Malcolm X. Malcolm Little was born on May 19, 1925, the son of Louise and Earl Little of Omaha, Nebraska. Louise Little was a mulatto born in Grenada in the British West Indies. And Earl Little was a Baptist minister and organizer for Marcus Garvey's Universal Negro Improvement Association. Louise, his second wife, bore six children: Wilfred, Hilda, Philbert, Malcolm, Yvonne, and Reginald. Earl Little also had three children by a first wife: Ella, Earl, and Mary. Little had migrated with his family from Philadelphia to the midwe st, first to Milwaukee, then Omaha, and finally to East Lansing, Mich. In 1929 the family house was burned down, by white supremacists. After Earl Little died in 1931 in a streetcar accident, Malcolm's mother eventually had a mental breakdown and entered an inside asylum. The siblings were dispersed to other families. Malcolm lived with a foster family before moving to Roxbury, Mass., in 1941 to live with a half sister, Ella Collins. A few months after his arrival in Roxbury, a predominantly black section of Boston, Malcolm dropped out of school (having completed eight grade) and took a job as a shoeshine boy at the Roseland Ballroom in Boston's Back Bay section. A career as a hustler seemed a more tempting option, and he was soon selling narcotics. Roxbury proved to be too small for him, and in 1942 he took a job as a railroad dining-car porter, working out of Roxbury and Harlem. Settling in Harlem, he became involved in robbery, prostitution, and narcotics. After a year in Harlem Malcolm was officially initiated into hustler society. He returned to Boston in 1945 after a falling out with another hustler, and continued a life of crime, forming his own house robbing gang. He was arrested for robbery in February 1946, and was convicted and sentenced to prison for seven years. While in prison, Malcolm became a follower of Elijah Muhammad, the leader of a small, urban cult, the Nation of Islam, with branches in Detroit, Chicago, and New York.

Buckley / Ericsson :: essays research papers

Buckley / Ericsson   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In their essays both Buckley and Ericsson analyze the different ways we use lies to help and hurt our self in our every day lives, and how this effects American culture. Ericsson shows the way lies can , as she puts it, â€Å" lubricate the daily machinery of living†(128). Buckley, on the other hand uses examples of lies as a way to deny himself; and do exactly the opposite of Ericsson. But they both show how we as Americans use lies these ways and others so much that most of us may not realize it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ericsson’s essay was obviously about The Ways We Lie, mostly about the way we lie to other people to make their or your own life easier. Buckley’s essay is not so obviously about lying, but if you read deeper into the text you can see how Buckley makes his life harder by lying to himself. When Ericsson is describing the white lie; she use the example of a friend telling another friend she looks good when the truth is she doesn’t. This is exactly how we use lies to lubricate daily living, we avoid confrontation. â€Å" The liar deciding what is best for the lied to† (Ericsson 121). When Buckley describes the amount of discomfort he endured from the heat on the train, he imagines what would happen to the conductor in an age of more violence. â€Å"The passengers would seize the conductor and strap him down on a seat over the radiator to share the fate of his patrons† (64). He has strong feelings toward the conductor, because someth ing has not already been done. When the conductor approaches Buckley; he has intensions of making the conductor aware of the problem, but the simple stare of his neighbor drives him to ignore the plain facts. Even though Buckley notices, â€Å"the car was flecked with the white shirts of the passengers†; he uses the stare as a way to dilute the truth into believing that his idea of turning the heat down would not be the consensus of the rest of the car (64).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The way lies have become a part of are daily life as Americans, and the way this has effected our culture is what both Ericsson and Buckley express in their essays. I think Buckley clearly stated his essay’s purpose when he said, â€Å" what has happened to the American people.

Human Nature As Competitive :: essays research papers

Thomas Hobbes believes that humans are born equal. He means the bodies and minds of newborn people are of equal ability. One person sometimes becomes stronger in body or quicker in mind than another. When one becomes stronger in body, the person can claim he is better than another is. This causes other people around him to become threatened and jealous by the stronger person. People are more equal when it come to wisdom of the mind, because almost all people think they have more wisdom than the common people do. â€Å"They will hardly believe there be many so wise as themselves (201).† Because people basically have equality of ability, they all have hope of attaining what they want and dream of. The conflict comes when two men want the same thing, which they both cannot have. They become enemies and they seek to destroy or subdue the other. Some examples of this are two families that want to purchase the same house. They try to subdue each other by raising the amount they are willing to pay for the house, even if it is more than they were planning on spending. Every person thinks their companion should value them and when the person undervalues them, they will do whatever it takes to be as valued as they would like to be. There are three principle causes of quarrel in the nature of man. They are competition, diffidence (or distrust), and glory. In human nature, competition is for gain, diffidence is for safety, and glory is for reputation. It is the competitive human nature that renders people apt to invade and destroy one another. The reading gives and example of a man who arms himself when taking a journey, locks his doors when he goes to sleep, and locks his chest even when he’s home. He is trying to protect himself from others competing against him for what he has. The reading give another example of how governments and leaders have their weapons pointed at the enemy at all times and how leaders continually spy on their neighbors. This is true because for years the US and Russia have had weapons pointed at each other and the U.

Prison and Facilities Offering Rehabilitation Essay

Prisoner Rehabilitation is when a criminal offender has been reformed of their criminal behavior. Many correctional facilities offer several different types of rehabilitation programs to the offenders that are housed within the facility; unfortunately with many states seeing budget cuts these types of rehabilitation programs are being cut. With the amount of facilities offering rehabilitation programs are dwindling and the amount of prisoners increasing this could lead to major problems in the future. Prisoner rehabilitation is a way to try and ensure that upon the offenders release that society is safe from the offender’s criminal ways. Some correctional facilities offer rehabilitation programs like drug and alcohol rehab, religion, and anger management and that is just a few (Foster, 2006). First discussed back in the Twentieth Century although it is believed to of been used before than. Rehabilitation has never been the soul reason for the incarceration of a person. Prison official were not able to give a defined and clear method of rehabilitation (Foster, 2006). Scientific penology was a major role in defining and conducting structured thoughts and scientific studies that can be utilized through rehabilitation (Foster, 2006). Rehabilitation programs have an effect on prisoners, prisons, and society in general in different ways. Prison inmates who have these types of programs available it gives them something constructive to do with their time; when you are incarcerated believe it or not but all you have is time to kill. These types of rehabilitation programs can have a positive impact on the inmate’s lives and in turn on society. If an inmate can complete rehabilitation program while incarcerated and change their lifestyle when released it benefits not only the inmate but also helps society. These programs can help offenders by building their self worth so that they can believe they deserve better than a prison life and let them know that there is something more out there other than the prison life. Some say that these types of programs don’t work and in some cases they don’t but in some they  do work and can give an inmate a real chance to survive outside of the prison walls without reverting back to their criminal ways. The major problem that I see with the rehabilitation programs would be the fact that they are being cut and facilities that offer these programs are being closed. I have a very close family friend that is mandated to go through rehabilitation program from the courts yet they are sent to a facility where the rehabilitation program is not even offered due to budget cuts. The budget cuts and closing of facilities are only going to add to the over crowding population of inmates within the corrections facilities. So my recommendation is that these types of programs need to be offered at every prison and should but be affected by budget cuts. Reference: Foster, B. (2006). Corrections: The fundamentals. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Coso and Basel

Financial Collapses and Regulations New England College of Business In an era of risky investments and failed financial institutions, additional importance is being placed on businesses implementing Enterprise Risk Management (ERM) plans. ERM is defined by the Institute of Internal Auditors (2012) as an approach designed to â€Å"identify, quantify, respond to, and monitor the consequences of potential events implemented by management. † Without an ERM plan, transparency to shareholders and internal accountability are nearly impossible to achieve.COSO and Basel are both reactive frameworks to increased regulatory changes that forced institutions to show more transparency to their financial reporting, in order to manage operational risks, mitigate the likelihood of a collapse, and ensure stability in volatile market conditions (Farnan 2004; Balin 2008); these measures increase confidence in investors. This comparative analysis of COSO and Basel seeks to indentify common measure s that are necessary to form a functional ERM plan, the most important being the accountability of management and its communication with the Board (The New Basel Accord 2003).A Comparative Analysis of ERM Guidelines: COSO I/II and Basel I/II Introduction Due to the epidemic of failed financial systems seen over the past decade, agencies and private organizations (e. g. , Securities and Exchange Commission, NICE, etc. ) have set in place guidelines for the standardization of reporting and evaluating risk in an effort to eliminate â€Å"surprise† collapses in the future (NICE Systems Ltd. 2012).Alexander Campbell, Editor, Operational Risk & Regulation, states that â€Å"regulatory approaches are changing† and requiring companies to streamline processes for monitoring internal risks at a company, such as fraud (NICE Systems Ltd. 2012). Common goals of organizing committees trying to tackle regulatory challenges are to improve communication between the board and management , increase shareholders' confidence, and most importantly, for entities to thoroughly evaluate their liquidity so that in the event of a crisis, investors' assets are secured (Bressac 2005; Decamps,Rochet, & Roger 2003). This comparative analysis of COSO and Basel identifies the standards these documents set for institutions to maintain an Enterprise Risk Management (ERM) plan, as well as the affects these documents' shortcomings and constraints have on entities which apply either COSO or Basel. Enterprise Risk Management (ERM) is defined by the Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA) (2012) as an approach designed to â€Å"identify, quantify, respond to, and monitor the consequences of potential events implemented by management. It is important for all parties affiliated with an institution's ERM plan to clearly identify and understand the events that impact a company's value in order for the entity to achieve its objectives (IIA 2012). The frameworks COSO and Basel both attempt to b e reactive solutions to public events in which lack of an adequate ERM plan has contributed to a collapse of a major institution or market which had a detrimental affect on the public (Farnan 2004; Lall 2009).Both documents have been explored by many key opinion leaders in the financial industry, and while each provides a set of guidelines for developing successful ERM protocols, each also fails to be foolproof. Shaw (2006) provides the argument that â€Å"while the COSO standard was groundbreaking at the time, it was not meant to be a marking guide for controls. † Moreover, in regards to Pillar 3 of the Basel Accord which depicts methods of Value-At-Risk (VAR) calculations, Standard and Poor's noted that although these VAR methods â€Å"appear to offer mathematical precision†¦they are not a magic bullet† (Lall 2009).COSO and Basel can be seen as â€Å"a significant step forward† for the times (Saurina and Persaud 2008). Basel In 1974, the Basel Committee o f Banking Supervision (BCBS) was created (consisting of the G10 plus Luxembourg and Spain) in light of the challenges from an increasingly internationalized banking system (Lall 2009). In the 1980s, it became clear (post-Latin America Debt Crisis, 1982) that a process was needed regulate the international banking system to mitigate risk and manage losses (Lall 2009).The first Basel Accord and Basel II, referred to as â€Å"Basel,† is a method of risk management, specifically for financial institutions operating on a multi-national level, that sets minimum capital requirements (â€Å"8% of adjusted assets† (Decamps, Rochet, & Roger 2003)) that these institutions must uphold to minimize the risk of a collapse in the international banking system (Lamy 2006).Basel I, the first international accord on bank capital was established in 1988, by the BCBS (Finance & Development 2008), with the goal to â€Å"arrive at significantly more risk-sensitive capital requirements† with the primary objective in line with ensuring stability in the international banking system (Lamy 2006). In 2004, Basel II was introduced, with amendments in response to the Quantitative Impact Study, QIS 3, (published in May 2003), an increase in the amount of capital banks must set aside for â€Å"high-risk exposures,† and changes from feedback from banks on Basel I (Finance & Development 2008; Lamy 2006).The Basel framework is focused on three â€Å"pillars†: â€Å"a minimum capital adequacy requirement, supervisory review, and market discipline† (Decamps, Rochet, & Roger 2003). Basel I was highly criticized for having a â€Å"one size fits all† approach to formulating institutions' risk-weighted assets (with insensitivity to emerging countries), in addition to unrealistic capital requirements that discouraged even reasonable risk taking (Kaufman 2003). In response to these critiques, BCSB began to draft Basel II, in which the amendments to Pillar I (310 out of ~350 pages of the document (Balin 2008)) were most notable.Balin (2008) describes the â€Å"menu† of various options that Basel II encompasses for Pillar I, which allow institutions to choose the most suitable options dependent on a series of factors (i. e. , size, rating, etc. ). The minimum capital requirement pillar focuses on the least amount of capital a bank must maintain to be protected from credit, operational, and market risks (Ahmed and Khalidi 2007). In Basel II, the highly critiqued credit risk requirements were modified to decrease the â€Å"one size fits all† stigma of Basel I (Kaufman 2003).Additionally, Basel II takes into account loopholes found in Basel I that enabled banks to maintain their desired level of risk â€Å"while cosmetically assuaging to minimum capital adequacy requirements,† which was done mainly through a transfer of assets to holding companies and subsidiaries (Balin 2008). Similar to COSO framework, the first pil lar of Basel seeks to unite various types of risks into an overall evaluation of capital requirements to safeguard shareholders and investors. Pillar 2, theSupervisory Review, is meant to â€Å"insure that banks have adequate capital to support all the risks in their business† including, but not limited to, the calculations in Pillar 1 (Kaufman 2003). This Pillar clearly defines of obligations of supervisory oversight against extreme risk taking; of note in this Pillar is line 680, which states: â€Å"Supervisors are expected to evaluate how well banks are assessing their capital needs relative to their risks and to intervene, where appropriate.This interaction is intended to foster an active dialogue between banks and supervisors such that when deficiencies are identified, prompt and decisive action can be taken to reduce risk or restore capital† (The New Basel Capital Accord 2003). The four principles of Pillar 2 seek to hold the supervisors responsible for implicati ng processes, reviewing, setting expectations, and intervening when warranted in regard to management of capital risks (The New Basel Capital Accord 2003). Pillar 3 seeks to protect against changes in asset prices (market risk) (Balin 2008), which is an addition to the credit risk factors of Basel I.Using the Value-At-Risk (VAR) model, banks were able to determine the probability of a portfolio's value decreasing by more than a set amount over a given time period (Lall 2009). Critics of the VAR model, such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), claim that it fails to account for â€Å"extreme market events† and assumes that the â€Å"processes generating market events were stable† (Lall 2009). COSO In July 2002, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) was passed with the goals of increasing investor and public confidence â€Å"in the post-Enron era† and increasing management accountability, among others (Farnan 2004).Section 404 of SOX states that effective for some lar ge companies, beginning December 31, 2004, a â€Å"separate management report on internal control effectiveness and audit by the organization's external financial statement auditor† is required (Farnan 2004). COSO's framework lays out a path for developing efficient operations and regulatory compliance methods, and has been established as the framework recommended by agencies such as the SEC for public companies to base their financial reporting on (Farnan 2004).The Committee of Sponsoring Organization of the Treadway Commissions (COSO) is comprised of five private organizations in the financial industry (COSO Web site 2012). The COSO organization was established in 1995 with the mission to â€Å"provide thought leadership through the development of comprehensive frameworks and guidance on enterprise risk management, internal control and fraud deterrence,† and attempts to enhance success and leadership, and minimize fraud in company reporting (COSO Web site 2012).Since its establishment, COSO has published frameworks â€Å"aimed at helping publicly traded companies cope with tough new monitoring requirements mandated by the Sarbanes-Oxley Act† (Shaw 2006), and to help businesses manage risk, by looking at business units as an entire entity, designed to improve organizational performance and governance and to reduce the extent of fraud in organization (COSO Web site 2012).The COSO framework is a cube comprised of four (three in COSO I) company objectives perpendicular to eight (five in COSO I) factors that together form a risk assessment program for which companies can reduce risks by realizing the amount of capital needed for consequences (Bressac 2005). Similar to Basel, COSO dictates that â€Å"the board is responsible for overseeing management's design and operation of ERM† (Bressac 2005).One factor that COSO framework includes is the measurement of a company's risk appetite, â€Å"the amount of risk, on a broad level, an entity is willing to accept in pursuit of value† (Rittenberg and Martens 2012). Many objectives that management sets for their company (i. e. , increase market share, win competitive tenders) include a substantial amount of risk, and COSO's strategic decision-making framework allows managers to present the objectives in relation to appetite to the Board for approval (Rittenberg and Martens 2012).Conclusions Both COSO and Basel were drawn to effectively respond to new implications (Sarbanes-Oxley Act (Shaw 2006) and new laws capital requirements for banks (Lamy 2006), respectively), and each have principles that can help institutions manage ERM more effectively. For example, The New Basel Capital Accord (2003) clearly articulates that setting a minimum amount of available capital resources is â€Å"a vital element of the strategic planning process,† and the three pillars devise a plan to do this.Bressec (2005) claims that COSO II framework articulates a way for managers to eff ectively deal with the events that create uncertainty for entities and create responses to minimize potential losses. COSO and Basel were both released in the infancy stage and flawed. Samad-Khan (2005) observed that COSO's creditability is diminished because consequences are predicted to occur much more frequently than had been historically recorded in the past.Supporters acknowledge that Basel II has â€Å"arcane† ideas, but defend that â€Å"it's still a step in the right direction because it increases financial oversight and makes sure banks won't be doomed by crises of confidence† (Coy 2008). It is important to note that while COSO and Basel offer much protection against quantitative risk assessments, they must be coupled with the knowledge and insight of senior risk managements to be most efficient (Lall 2009; Samad-Khan 2005).Moreover, both COSO and Basel also provide constraints that limit the amount of risks institutions can endure, sometimes excessively. Pall (2009) discusses one failure in Basel II as the ability for developed-nation banks to skew their reports to their desired results, â€Å"at the expense of their smaller and emerging market competitors and, above all, systemic financial stability. † Samad-Khan (2005) emphasizes that historical data is still the most reliable way for companies to determine the probability for risk to occur.Start-ups will not have this historical data, therefore may overestimate their probability of risk using the â€Å"likelihood x impact = risk† calculation (Samad-Khan 2005) and miss out on potentially positive opportunities. Others against the provisions claim that both documents (e. g. , Basel in the Emerging markets) implement concessions that constrain potential growth by overcompensating for potential consequences and depleting lending capital for banks, which in the 1930s contributed to the Great Depression (Coy 2008). Historical events depict the need for more stringent regulato ry guidelines in this era of financial market uncertainty.The most important common factor of Basel and COSO are that each clearly states that it is management's responsibility to have a functional ERM plan in place, and be in communication with the Board about potential risks that the company faces (Bressec 2005; The New Basel Capital Accord 2003). Holding management accountable for the risks the business takes, while making sure that the Board is in agreement with management's plan creates a necessary harmony of a checks and balances system, in turn creating a â€Å"safer† landscape for shareholders and the public to place faith in. When properly executed,